Wednesday, March 18, 2020
Genetic Engineering Essays - Molecular Biology, Biotechnology
Genetic Engineering Essays - Molecular Biology, Biotechnology Genetic Engineering Genetic Engineering: A leap in to the future or a leap towards destruction? Introduction Science is a creature that continues to evolve at a much higher rate than the beings that gave it birth. The transformation time from tree-shrew, to ape, to human far exceeds the time from an analytical engine, to a calculator, to a computer. However, science, in the past, has always remained distant. It has allowed for advances in production, transportation, and even entertainment, but never in history has science be able to so deeply affect our lives as genetic engineering will undoubtedly do. With the birth of this new technology, scientific extremists and anti-technologists have risen in arms to block its budding future. Spreading fear by misinterpretation of facts, they promote their hidden agendas in the halls of the United States congress. They fear that it is unsafe; however, genetic engineering is a safe and powerful tool that will yield unprecedented results, specifically in the field of medicine. It will usher in a world where gene defects, bacterial disease, and even agin g are a thing of the past. By understanding genetic engineering and its history, discovering its possibilities, and answering the moral and safety questions it brings forth, the blanket of fear covering this remarkable technical miracle can be lifted. The first step to understanding genetic engineering and embracing its possibilities for society is to obtain a rough knowledge base of its history and method. The basis for altering the evolutionary process is dependant on the understanding of how individuals pass on characteristics to their offspring. Genetics achieved its first foothold on the secrets of nature's evolutionary process when an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel developed the first laws of heredity. Using these laws, scientists studied the characteristics of organisms for most of the next one hundred years following Mendel's discovery. These early studies concluded that each organism has two sets of character determinants, or genes (Stableford 16). For instance, in regards to eye color, a child could receive one set of genes from his or her father that were encoded one blue, and the other brown. The same child could also receive two brown genes from his or her mother. The conclusion for this inheritance would be the ch ild has a three in four chance of having brown eyes, and a one in three chance of having blue eyes (Stableford 16). Genes are transmitted through chromosomes which reside in the nucleus of every living organism's cells. Each chromosome is made up of fine strands of deoxyribonucleic acids, or DNA. The information carried on the DNA determines the cells function within the organism. Sex cells are the only cells that contain a complete DNA map of the organism, therefore, the structure of a DNA molecule or combination of DNA molecules determines the shape, form, and function of the [organism's] offspring (Lewin 1). DNA discovery is attributed to the research of three scientists, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and James Dewey Watson in 1951. They were all later accredited with the Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine in 1962 (Lewin 1). The new science of genetic engineering aims to take a dramatic short cut in the slow process of evolution (Stableford 25). In essence, scientists aim to remove one gene from an organism's DNA, and place it into the DNA of another organism. This would create a new DNA strand, full of new encoded instructions; a strand that would have taken Mother Nature millions of years of natural selection to develop. Isolating and removing a desired gene from a DNA strand involves many different tools. DNA can be broken up by exposing it to ultra-highfrequency sound waves, but this is an extremely inaccurate way of isolating a desirable DNA section (Stableford 26). A more accurate way of DNA splicing is the use of restriction enzymes, which are produced by various species of bacteria (Clarke 1). The restriction enzymes cut the DNA strand at a particular location called a nucleotide base, which makes up a DNA molecule. Now that the desired portion of the DNA is cut out, it can be joined to anothe st rand of DNA by using enzymes called ligases. The final important step in the creation of a new DNA strand
Sunday, March 1, 2020
How to Use the French Preposition ÃÂ
How to Use the French Preposition Despite its diminutive size,  is a hugely important French preposition and one of the most important words in the French language. Its meanings and uses in French are many and varied, but at its most basic, generally means to, at or in. Compare  to de, meaning of or from, with which its often confused.  Contractions When  is followed by the definite articles le and les,  contracts with themas a single word. le  au (au magasin)   les aux (aux maisons) But  does not contract with la or l.   la  la ( la banque) l  l ( lhà ´pital) In addition,  is not contracted with le and les when they are direct objects. Common Uses of 1. Location or destination Jhabite Paris.  I live in Paris.Je vais Rome.  Im going to Rome.Je suis la banque.  Im at the bank. 2. Distance in time or space Jhabite 10 mà ¨tres de lui.  I live 10 meters from him.Il est 5 minutes de moi.  He is 5 minutes from me. 3. Point in time Nous arrivons 5h00.  We arrive at 5:00.Il est mort 92 ans.  He died at the age of 92. 4. Manner, style, or characteristic Il habite la franà §aise.  He lives in the French style.un enfant aux yeux bleus  blue-eyed child; child with blue eyesfait la main  made by handaller pied  to go on / by foot 5. Possession un ami moi  a friend of mineCe livre est Jean  This is Jeans book 6. Measurement acheter au kilo  to buy by the kilogrampayer la semaine  to pay by the week 7. Purpose or use une tasse thà ©Ã‚  teacup; cup for teaun sac dos  backpack; pack for the back 8. In the passive infinitive louer  for rentJe nai rien lire.  I have nothing to read.             9. With Certain Verbs, Phrases Followed by an Infinitive The French preposition is required after certain verbs and phrases when they are followed by an infinitive. The English translation may take an infinitive (to learn how to do something) or a gerund (to stop eating).   aider   to help to    samuser   to amuse oneself ___-ing   apprendre   to learn how to   sapprà ªter   to get ready to   arriver   to manage / succeed in ___-ing   sattendre   to expect to   sautoriser   to authorize / allow to   avoir   to have to / be obliged to   chercher   to attempt to   commencer   to begin to / ___-ing   consentir   to consent to   continuer   to continue to / ___-ing   dà ©cider (quelquun)   to persuade (someone) to   se dà ©cider   to make up ones mind to   encourager   to encourage to    sengager   to get around to   enseigner   to teach to   shabituer   to get used to   hà ©siter   to hesitate to   sintà ©resser   to be interested in   inviter (qu elquun)   to invite (someone) to   se mettre   to start, set about ___-ing   obliger   to oblige to   parvenir   to succeed in ___-ing   passer du temps    to spend time ___-ing   perdre du temps   to waste time ___-ing   persister   to persist in ___-ing   se plaire   to take pleasure in ___-ing    pousser (quelquun)   to urge/push (someone) to    se prà ©parer   to prepare oneself to    recommencer   to begin ___-ing again   rà ©flà ©chir   to consider ___-ing    renoncer   to give up ___-ing    rà ©sister   to resist ___-ing   rà ©ussir   to succeed in ___-ing   rà ªver   to dream of ___-ing   servir   to serve to   songer   to dream of ___-ing   tarder   to delay / be late in ___-ing    tenir   to hold (someone) to / insist on ___-ing   venir   to happen to 10. With Verbs That Need an Indirect Object The French preposition is required after many French verbs and phrases that need an indirect object, but there is often no equivalent preposition in English.      acheter   to buy from    arracher    to grab, tear away from   assister (la rà ©union)  to attend (the meeting)    conseiller   to advise    convenir (quelquun) / la situation  to please; to be suitable for someone / the situation   croire   to believe something   demander (quelque chose) (quelquun)  to ask someone (something)   dà ©fendre   to forbid    demander (quelquun)  to ask (someone) to    dà ©plaire   to displease; to be displeasing to   dà ©sobà ©ir   to disobey    dire   to say; to tell   donner un stylo (quelquun)  to give (someone) a pen   emprunter un livre (quelquun)  to borrow a book from (someone)   envoyer (qqch) (quelquun)  to send (something) to (someone)    à ªtre   to belong to   faire attention Â à ‚ to pay attention to   se fier (quelquun)  to trust (someone)   goà »ter (quelque chose)  to taste (something)   shabituer   to get used to   interdire (quelque chose) quelquun  to forbid someone (something)   sintà ©resser   to be interested in    jouer   to play (a game or sport)   manquer   to miss someone   mà ªler   to mingle with; to join in   nuire   to harm   obà ©ir   to obey   sopposer   to oppose   ordonner   to order   pardonner   to pardon; to forgive   parler   to talk to   penser   to think of / about   permettre   to permit   plaire   to please; to be pleasing to   profiter   to benefit; to be profitable to   promettre   to promise   rà ©flà ©chir   to consider; to reflect upon   rà ©pondre   to answer   rà ©sister   to resist   ressembler   to resemble    rà ©ussir lexamen to pass the test   serrer la main (quelquun)  to shake hands with someone   servir   to be used for / as   songe r   to dream; to think of   succà ©der   to succeed; to follow   survivre   to survive   tà ©là ©phoner   to call   voler (quelque chose) quelquun  to steal (something) from someone Notes Remember that plus an inanimate noun can be replaced by the adverbial pronoun y. For example, je my suis habituà ©Ã‚  I got used to it. plus a person can usually be replaced by an indirect object pronoun that is placed in front of the verb (e.g., Il me parle). However, a few verbs and expressions do not allow a preceding indirect object pronoun. Instead, they require that you keep the preposition after the verb and follow it with a stressed pronoun (e.g., Je pense toi). Additional Resources Passive infinitive: a grammatical structure in which something other than a verb needs to be followed by  infinitive.
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